| Suicide Attacks and Islam |
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| Written by Dr. Ergün Çapan | |
| Sunday, 08 January 2006 | |
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Before starting to analyze suicide attacks, there are two general issues that need to be focused on. According to Islam, humans are superior because they are human. The Koran expresses this principle as we have honored the children of Adam (Al-Isra 17:70). Thus, regardless of a human being male or female, old or young, black or white, all human beings are venerable, inviolable, and protected. Islam regards human life very highly. Many verses of the Koran and the hadiths order that the five principle values,[1] known as the "Zaruriyat al-Khamsa" (the five indispensable conditions), must be protected. These conditions are; life, religion, progeny, the mind, and property. Thus, human life is not to be violated, honor is not to be desecrated, property is not to be confiscated. People cannot be driven away from their home or lands, they cannot be deprived of their freedom, and their right to practice their religion cannot be precluded. As Islam regards each human being as possessing the worth of the entire species, killing one person is deemed as being the equivalent of slaughtering the whole of humanity, and conversely, saving the life of one human being is considered the same as saving the life of humanity as a whole (Ma'ida 5:32). Human beings are not as highly regarded on any commission or in any establishment for human rights or in any other religious or belief system as they are in Islam. It is not permissible (in Islam) for a person to commit a crime even against him or herself; thus, taking the life that God bestowed upon one is forbidden. As, in the same vein, no person can take the life of another, nobody can end his or her life, i.e., suicide is not permitted. Islam categorically forbids suicide. The Holy Koran prohibits suicide (Nisa 4:29), and in many hadiths the Prophet declared that suicide is unlawful in Islam.[2] Peace Is Essential in Islam Islam means peace, security, and soundness. The Muslim who believes and practices this religion is a person who inspires trust in everybody, and even in everything; such a person does not harm anybody by word or by deed. In fact, Islam wages war against tumult, turmoil, discord, tyranny, and terrorism. As stated in several verses[3] of the Koran and in many hadiths,[4] peace is essential in Islam, and war is deemed as arizi, secondary, unnatural, or situational. The conduct of Muslims with other people should be based on the principle of peace as well. In fact, in a religion where security and world peace is the principle, war and discord are sure to be secondary; this is identical to the struggle of a healthy body that fights against the germs that have attacked it. Islam, in principle, does not tolerate war, even when there are strict regulations of how to carry it out, even though it is a reality of humanity and one of the most outstanding facts of human history. In Islam, war is restricted to the purpose of defense; within the framework of the principle mentioned in the Koran as follows, tumult and oppression are worse than slaughter (Baqara 2:191), war is justified only to prevent chaos (which leads to wars), anarchy, tyranny, and defeatism.[5] With the Koran, war has been given a set of restrictions and principles for the first time in human history. (Gülen 2004, 238; Yazır 1979, 2/692) Islam has put forth regulations to balance war. Islam considers justice and worldwide peace to be a principle, stating:
Along with these fundamental principles, Islam acknowledges that every believer has the right to protect their religion, life, property, progeny, and their honor and sacred values. This is true to the extent that dying in defense of these rights is considered martyrdom. For instance, the Messenger of God stated that whoever is killed for the sake of their property is a martyr; whoever is killed defending their life is a martyr; whoever is killed protecting their relatives is a martyr; and whoever is killed for the sake of their home and family is a martyr.[6] Having looked at the issue from this general perspective, we would like now to concentrate on suicide attacks. Suicide attacks should be analyzed in two groups; those committed in times of peace, and those committed during war. Suicide Attacks in Times of Peace First of all, it should be stated here that it would not be correct to take the laws and regulations that are pertinent to the state of war—a state that Islam regards as an arizi state of affairs—and apply them to times of peace. Laws of war apply only to times of war and warfare conditions. In times of peace and in civilian life Islam demands a high level of moral and religious values for each Muslim and demands that all people be treated with mercy and compassion; Islam strives to establish peace and security in society.[7] Thus, it is not possible that Islam would justify suicide attacks carried out in times of peace in any country against any target, civilian or military, as such attacks would result in the loss of innocent lives. The Koran, which orders that all people and even all creatures be treated with mercy and compassion, equates the slaying of a person unjustly with the slaying of the whole of humanity (Ma'ida 5:32). Indeed, as mentioned above, from the Islamic point of view, killing a human being unjustly is as grave a crime as slaying the whole of humanity. This is because the unjust killing of a person implies both the possibility that any person can be killed indiscriminately, and advocates disrespect for the right to live for the whole of humanity. The person who commits such a crime embarks on a very terrible way with the murder of a human being, a creature that is very valuable to God. Thus, this perpetrator who savagely kills another human being deserves God's wrath and anger and should be punished in the Hereafter as if they had killed the whole humanity. The Koran does not demand as harsh a punishment for any other crime as that which it passes on those who intentionally kill innocent human beings. The statement and the punishments are indeed terrifying:
The punishment for the intentional murder of a believer is eternal hellfire, saving God's forgiveness. Ibn Abbas and some other scholars interpreted this verse as the repentance of those who killed a believer purposefully will be denied, and they will be doomed to eternal hellfire.[8] This commentary, made by the most prominent of authorities in the field of tafsir (commentaries on the Koran) deserves to be carefully considered. It is stated in the verse, that in addition to the punishment of hellfire for those who intentionally kill a believer, these people are also condemned to God's wrath and damnation. A fearful torment is prepared for them as well. It is very important to make it clear here that there is no other threat as harsh or terrifying in the whole of the Koran. Likewise, the killing of an innocent human being is mentioned alongside committing shirk (speculating a partner to God, the particular major sin that will not be forgiven) (Furqan 25:68; An'am 6:151); the placing of these two together is also noteworthy in terms of illustrating the graveness of the matter. Using Islamic sources to approve actions that take human life is not possible. No conscious Muslim who possesses the attributes of faith and Islam (submission to God) can commit such an act. Suicide Attacks in a State of War We have briefly outlined the general attitude of Islam to suicide attacks in times of peace. Now, we would like to analyze suicide attacks on civilians and innocent people in places where Muslims are in a position to fight for their lives, their sacred values, and their homeland from the perspective of Islamic criteria. "Non-combatants" cannot be killed in event of war Every Muslim has to live his or her life in accordance with the principles of the message that God Almighty has revealed in the Koran. Muslims are supposed to structure each unit of their lives, from the realm of worship to social conduct and emotions, in compliance with divine guidelines. Thus, they are obliged to adhere to these guidelines while fighting for the defense of the rights that must be protected. The process of war does not justify the violation of these principles and doctrines. Islam, even in the event of war, does not approve of the killing of non-combatant people who are elderly, women, or children; such people cannot possess the status of "combatant." And this approach, which is now considered as part of "the rules of engagement," is actually an original principle bequeathed to the law of war by Islam. As a general principle, in the event of war "non-combatants" are not to be killed, as stated in the Koran:
The reservation of "those who fight you" in the original text of the verse is of extreme importance. To explain this in grammatical terms, the mood in Arabic denotes "participation" which, in this sense, means: "those who fall under the status of combatant." Thus, non-combatants are not to be fought against. The "prohibition of the killing of non-combatants," as understood from this verse, was elucidated by the Prophet both verbally and by action: there are numerous hadiths on this subject.[9] However, we would like to narrate just a few of them here to clarify the issue:
In addition, the Messenger of God used to warn the commanders and the armies he sent off to expeditions: "Fight in God's path, fight for God; abide by the agreement made between you and your rivals, if there is any; do not transgress limits; do not commit musla (the mutilation of a corpse, i.e., do not cut off the ears, noses, or the like, in other words, do not perpetrate the things that are humiliating to human dignity); do not kill children, women, the elderly, and those who take refuge in places of worship."[12] After the Prophet, the Rightly Guided Caliphs (the first four Caliphs) followed these regulations with particular care, observing them meticulously. And from that day on, most Muslim heads of states reminded their commanders of these principles when they saw them off to the front, giving commands and inculcations which have been faithfully observed throughout history:
The scholars of Islamic law have unanimously agreed that the killing of non-combatant women, children, elderly people, monks, and the pious who are secluded in monasteries, engaged in worship, the blind and the handicapped is forbidden in Islam.[13] In the aforementioned verse (Baqara 2:190) the Koran commands Muslims not to be excessive. "Being excessive" is defined in the comments of the Prophets in two ways: one, "killing non-combatants" and, two, "behaving degradingly towards those who are defeated." The Messenger of God prohibited the mutilation of the dead in war,[14] and also sabran killings (tying up a person while still alive to use as target practice and aiming at this person with a variety of weapons until the person is dead).[15] He even prohibited such practices being carried out on a chicken, let alone allowing it on humans.[16] Additionally, God's Messenger drew attention to the fact that Muslims are obliged to behave in a fitting manner, even when fighting against the enemy: "Those who fight in a good manner (taking ethical and humane values into account) are the persons of belief."[17] Islam even sets ethical rules and regulations on how to slaughter animals; therefore it is not to be wondered at that it prohibits excess when human beings fight one another. For centuries Muslims have been observing these ethical regulations when slaughtering animals in ritual sacrifices, as well as at other times. For instance, the ill treatment of animals and the sharpening of knives in front of their eyes are forbidden by a hadith.[18] In short, from the perspective of these criteria it can be clearly seen that the suicide attacks of today, which take hundreds of innocent lives, are in no way in accord with the general ethical principles of Islam. Civilian targets cannot be attacked Killing innocent people in war completely contradicts the fundamental principles of Islam. Neither during the time of the Prophet nor in the times of his Companions, or of the Tabiuns (the generation that followed the Companions) or in the periods that followed was such a method of war (i.e., the killing of innocent civilians) employed by Muslims; there is no precedent for these actions. As a counter-argument to claims like "there is no other choice," the fact that the Companions who were subjected to the harshest torture and ill treatment in Makka, and those who followed in later periods, never engaged in these kinds of actions is evidence enough. In almost all sources of Islamic law there is discussion of one particular case: is it permissible for a Muslim during war to attack the enemy army or a unit of the same knowing that he is sure to be killed? The answer to this question is as follows: if he inflicts damage on the other side, and contributes positively to the struggle—i.e., if such an action were to boost morale and hearten the Muslims during war—then it is permissible for this person to do this action and to fight to the death. For instance, on the day of the Battle of Uhud, a group of the Companions did this (i.e., attacked the enemy in order to raise the spirit of Muslims) and they were praised by the Prophet. On the other hand, if such an attack would not inflict any damage on the military forces of the rival side, then such an action is not permissible. If the person were to continue in the attack knowing that it is of no benefit to the Muslims, then this person becomes the subject of the verse . . . cast not yourselves to perdition with your own hands, and do good (to others); surely God loves the doers of good (Baqara 2:195).[19] It is not possible to take this case (of one person attacking an army) that is discussed in fiqh compilations as a basis for the justification of suicide attacks committed by tying bombs to one's body that are carried out on innocent crowds of people. In the first place, the discussions in the fiqh books are concerned with times of war, and are discussing military targets, whereas suicide attacks are committed against civilian targets, against innocent people; thus, the two are completely separate subjects. Another so-called proof that is put forth for suicide attacks is the issue of tatarrus that is mentioned in fiqh collections. It is permitted in the event of tatarrus, i.e., when the enemy uses Muslim prisoners of wars, women, and children, as human shields, for Muslims to attack the enemy while still taking as many precautionary measures as they can to protect the captives.[20] Again, this is also an issue pertinent to warfare, thus it cannot be used as a justification for suicide attacks against civilians and the innocent, i.e., non-combatants. The word irhab as mentioned in the Koran As known to Muslims, the words of praise mentioned in the Koran have a distinguished place. In particular, words mentioned only in the context of praise and honor have a very special significance. The word irhab, is an example to such words. The verse in which this word is mentioned in the Koran is as follows:
Therefore, those who believe in the Koran and hold it as their reference must approach this word with the respect and dignity which it deserves. The literal meaning of the word irhab mentioned in the verse is "to frighten." However, this is a natural "fright" which arises against the possibility of harm and which acts as a deterring force; it is not harming oneself.[21] Mufassirs (the Islamic scholars who are proficient commentators on the Koran) have interpreted the word irhab mentioned in the verse as meaning to be equipped with the necessary weapons (such as steeds of war) against the enemy in order to create a deterring force in accordance with the conditions of the day.[22] Rashid Rida states that the word irhab means not to wage a war, but on the contrary, to prevent war; thus, implying the protection of society, not the destruction of it. He also interprets the aforementioned verse as "preparing the weapons of war to the greatest degree possible, in order to prevent the enemies—known or not—from waging a war or attacks."[23] In hadiths, the word irhab denotes deterrence,[24] and in the commentaries of the hadiths it is interpreted as such.[25] An-Nihaya, which compiles uncommon words (garib) in the hadiths, explains the word irhab as one's being so powerful that one is able to deter the enemy from attacking and to deter the enemy altogether.[26] The Companions interpreted this verse as being prepared for warfare, and having a deterrent power. For example, during the reign of 'Umar, there were forty thousand thoroughbred Arabian horses maintained at the ready on one of the farms near Madina; these horses did not go to war, even though there had been confrontations on several fronts. Likewise, near Syria, forty thousand more horses were kept at the ready on reserve. These horses, which were among the most important weapons of war in that time, were being maintained as reserve forces just in case.[27] As another meaning of the word ribat denotes devoting, dedicating, or assigning some members, either human or animal, to some places, it is possible to interpret the word ribat mentioned in the verse as being prepared and prudent in such ways. Thus, the Koran sets a goal for us as if it were ordering us "to defend and protect our religion, honor, reputation, dignity, our homeland, and all sacred values against the enemies who have malicious intentions; to take all the measures necessary to maintain such power that enables us to do so; and not to give any chance to the enemy."[28] The scholars of Islamic law also used the word irhab to mean being a deterrent.[29] As a result, when we examine the structure of the word irhab, its usage, and the meaning that has been given to it in hadith books and commentaries, in the books of Islamic law, and in dictionaries, the following facts come to light:
In the past, these deterrents took on different forms, such as dressing oneself in silk, dying gray hair black, putting on ornaments and jewelry, decorating the sword and its sheath with gold embroidery and designs, confronting an army by oneself, and preparing and training many horses for war. All of these were in accordance with the realities of the conditions of warfare at that time.[30] Other than the two forms mentioned above, there is no other usage of the word irhab in either the Koran or in the Sunna, nor can it be found in other written works that originate from the Koran or the Sunna. Thus, it would not be correct to interpret the word irhab that is mentioned in the Koran to mean killing innocent people in public areas by tying bombs to one's body, the shedding of blood, the setting of fires, causing damage to houses or property, spreading horror in order to introduce chaos into society nor the use of the Koran as proof supporting these actions. Additionally, there is another significant issue that must be focused on: all of the classical Arabic dictionaries provide only the word ihafa (to frighten) as the definition of the word irhab. Nevertheless, it has been noticed that in some dictionaries compiled in the second half of the twentieth century the definition of the word irhab has been changed and modified. Intentionally or not, in particular in dictionaries prepared by non-Muslims, the word irhab has been defined as "terrorism."[31] However, it is quite clear that there is an obvious difference between the word irhab, which means "frightening with a deterring power before engaging in a war" and the word "terrorism" which denotes killing, bombing, arson, spreading horror, and committing acts of violence that drive society into chaos.[32] A judicial decision cannot be passed on an unspecified issue One of the primary practices of the methodology of Islamic law is that the determination of the boundaries of the subject matter precedes the final establishment of the judgment. Thus, it is not possible to make decisions on unspecified issues that have no specified frame or boundaries, as to do so would open the way to misconduct and abuse. If suicide attacks are considered from this perspective, it becomes obvious that the target is not determined and who will be killed is not known. These attacks are carried out everywhere, in all places that are open to public life, such as street-markets, shopping areas, restaurants, bus stations, etc., where people pursue their daily activities; women, children, the elderly, Muslims, non-Muslims, all of these are targeted without discrimination. Thus, attempts to carry out such attacks, attacks where the goal and the target group are not determined, are in sheer opposition to one of the general principles of Islamic law. In Islam the principle is the individuality of the crime In Islam the penalties are peculiar to the case: whoever commits a crime is the only person to be called to account, and it is this person alone who serves the sentence. As repeatedly stated in the Koran, no bearer of burdens can bear the burden of another (An'am 6:164; Nahl 17:15; Fatir 35:18). The individuality of the crime and the penalty imposed is a principle of Islamic law. The targets of suicide attacks are innocent civilians; the fact that these attacks are aimed at innocent people is not in accord with this fundamental principle of law. Therefore, these attacks can only be considered to be unjust and contradictory to the Islamic understanding of justice. Suicide attacks defame the essential identity of Islam that is based on love and tolerance The means employed to reach a certain end must be as legitimate as the end itself. As mentioned earlier, a person's struggle to protect their sacred values, property, or nation are among the essential duties of humanity. Risking one's life for the sake of these sacred goals is the way to martyrdom. Conversely, adopting an unjustifiable means to reach such a goal results in divine reproach, and will yield exactly the opposite outcome; making things difficult for all Muslims. However, the Messenger of God, peace and blessings be upon him, his Companions, and the Muslims who have followed them as representatives of peace and serenity have always protected the identity of Islam during times of peace and war alike, and have never let it fall into disrepute. Today, Muslims are thought to be equated with "terrorism," and thus it has become obligatory for them to distance themselves as much as possible from any behavior or action that could be used to make such an incorrect and unfair accusation.[33] It is only because a few Muslims in a few places have behaved in this way or have endorsed those who carry out such actions that the words "Islam" and "terror" have been used conjointly, tarnishing the image of Islam; the way for those who want to bring disgrace onto Islam has been cleared. When Muslims in different parts of the world, frustrated by the hardship to which they are subjected, choose suicide attacks as their only way to fight, this decision does not only affect them; it is of concern to all Muslims. As a matter of fact, any suicide act involving the use of bombs in any place anywhere in the world brings infamy to the name of Islam and to all Muslims. We would like to narrate an incident that took place in this century concerning this matter: Bediüzzaman Said Nursi enrolled as a volunteer commander in a regiment during World War I, and served his people and country in a devoted manner. During the war, Armenian guerrillas slaughtered women and children in some places, and in retaliation, in some places, Armenian children were killed. Thousands of Armenian children gathered in the township where Said Nursi governed. He ordered the soldiers that "no harm will be done to them," later setting free these Armenian children and returning them to their families on the Russian side of the border. This kind of behavior by Nursi constituted an exemplary lesson for the Armenians, and earned their admiration for Muslim moral values. They promised not to kill Muslim children, saying that "since Molla Said did not slaughter our children and returned them to us, from now on we will not kill Muslim children." Because of Nursi's behavior and his approach, which were in accordance with the spirit of Islam, many Muslim children were saved from being slaughtered.[34] Conclusion Muslims must adhere to the criteria of their religion both in times of peace and in times of war. They have to control their feelings in accordance with the essential principles of Islam, no matter how difficult are the conditions or the severity of the suffering that has to be endured. They must not engage in any kind of action which Islam does not approve of. It is a great crime to commit suicide attacks during times of peace. There is absolutely no way that Islam would approve of such cold-blooded murders. And it is not possible that any conscious Muslim who has faith would commit such an act. Suicide attacks on civilian targets during times of war are not permissible, because these attacks target women, children, the elderly, and other non-combatant civilians, whom Islam prohibits the killing of in times of war. Moreover, murdering innocent, harmless people causes terror and anarchy, tarnishing the image of Islam and harming all Muslims. Even though Muslims in all sectors and classes suffer hard times in some countries, suicide attacks can never be justified. Carrying out attacks on undetermined targets and unspecified people, tying bombs to one's own body for the sole purpose of killing and detonating these explosives in a crowd of innocent people and children cannot be considered Islamic behavior. Islam has set rules and principles on "how to kill and be killed and how to fight with the enemy" during wartime; these are not to be violated, no matter the ferocity of the battle. In Islam, there is no such thing as killing women, children or other innocent people who are not actively participating in the war. In conclusion, while sharing the misery caused by the helplessness of our Muslim brothers and sisters, we would like to express that this method of fighting which Muslims have been drawn into is wrong, and that Islam and all believers have been condemned because of the erroneous manner of a minority who has chosen this inhumane way as a method of struggle. Dr. Ergün Çapan – PhD on Tafsir (Koranic commentary). He currently works for Akademik Araştırmalar Vakfı in Istanbul, and editor-in-chief of Yeni Ümit, a quarterly journal of Islamic sciences published in Turkey. References
[1] Shatibi, Muwafaqat, 2/7-10 [2] Bukhari, Janaiz, 84; Muslim, Iman, 175. [3] Muhammad 47:4; Al-Baqara 2:208; An-Nisa 4:90, 94; Al-Mumtahana 60:8. See Yazır, 1979, 4/2424. Zuhayli, Asar al-Harb, p.133-136. [4] Bukhari, Jihad, 112, Muslim, Jihad, 19; Abu Dawud, Jihad, 89. [5] Sarahsi, al-Mabsut, 10/5; Zuhayli, Asar al-Harb, 90-94 [6] Tirmidhi, Diyat, 21; Bukhari, Mazalim, 33; Muslim, Iman, 222. [7] See Mumtahana 60:8; Jathiya 45:14. [8] Tabari, Jami' al-Bayan, 4/295; Ibn al-Kathir, Tafsir al-Koran al-'Azim, 2/332. [9] See Tahawi, Sharh al-Maan al-Asar, 3/224-225; Tahanawi, I'la as-Sunan, 12/29. [10] Abu Dawud, Jihad, 111. [11] Bukhari, Jihad, 147; Muslim, Jihad, 25. [12] Tahanawi, I'la as-Sunan, 12/31-32; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, 1/300; Abu Dawud, Jihad, 82 Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad 1/300; Baykhaki, Sunan al-Kubra, 9/90. [13] Tahawi, Muhtasar al-Ikhtilaf al-Fuqaha, 3/455-456. [14] Bukhari, Mazalim, 30; Abu Dawud, Jihad, 110. [15] Muslim, Sayd, 58-60; Ibn Maja, Zabaih 10. See Yazır, 2/694. [16] Abu Dawud, Jihad, 120; Darimi, Adahi, 13. [17] Abu Dawud, Jihad, 110; Ibn Maja, Diyat, 30. [18] Abu Dawud, Adahi, 12; Tirmidhi, Diyat, 14. [19] Sarahsi, Mabsut; 10/37; Jassas, Ahkam al-Koran, 1/327; Ibn al Abidin, 1984, 4/127) [20] 20 Sarahsi, Mabsut, 10/154; Tahawi, Muhtasaru Ikhtilaf al-Fuqaha, 3/43. [21] See Ibn al Manzur, Lisan al-'Arab, "r-h-b"; Raghib, Mufradat, "r-h-b"; Zabidi, Taj al-Arus, "r-h-b." [22] Tabari, Jami al-Bayan, 6/42; Razi, Mafatih, 15/192; Alusi, 10/26; Yazır, Hak Dini Kur'an Dili. [23] Rashid Ridha, Tafsir al-Manar, 10/66. [24] Bazzar, Musnad, 6/30; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, 3/493. [25] Azim Abadi, Awn al-Ma'bud, 8/159 [26] Ibn Athir, an-Nihaya fi Gharib al-Hadis, 2/262 [27] Mawlana Shibli an-Numani, Bütün Yönleriyle Hazreti Ömer ve Devlet Idaresi, Istanbul: Hikmet Yayınları, 1986. Translated by Talip Yaşar Alp. [28] See Gülen, Sonsuz Nur, 2/190-192 [29] See Sarahsi, Mabsut, 10/42; Ibn al-Qudama, al-Kafi, 40264; Bahuti, Kashshaf al-Ghina, 3/65; Abu Ishak, ash-Shirazi, Muhazzab, 2/231; Ibn al-Abidin, 6/305. [30] Muhyiddin al-Ghazi, "Adwaun ala Kalimat al-irhab," al-Bas al-Islami, No. 48, p. 84; See Ibn al-Abidin, 6/756. [31] Oxford Wordpower, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999; Hans Wehr, A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, Beirut: Maktabat al-Lebanon, 1960; English Arabic Glossary. See Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11/650-651. [32] See Muhyiddin al-Ghazi, al-Bas al-Islami, No. 48, pp. 85-86; Dr. Jallul ad-Dakdak, "Hirabuyyun la irhabiyyun," al-Mahajja, No. 208, pp. 5-6, February 15, 2004. [33] Cevdet, Said. Islami Mücadelede Şiddet Sorunu [The Problem of Violence in Islamic Struggle], pp. 65-67. [34] Nursi, Bediüzzaman Said. Tarihçe-i Hayatı—İlk Hayatı [Bediüzzaman's Biography—First Phase] Risale-i Nur Collection, p. 2134. Related Items: |
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